feat(algorithms, graphs): reconstruct itinerary

DIRECTORY.md

@@ -87,6 +87,8 @@
     * Happy Number
       * [Test Happy Number](https://github.com/BrianLusina/PythonSnips/blob/master/algorithms/fast_and_slow/happy_number/test_happy_number.py)
   * Graphs
+    * Cat And Mouse
+      * [Test Cat And Mouse](https://github.com/BrianLusina/PythonSnips/blob/master/algorithms/graphs/cat_and_mouse/test_cat_and_mouse.py)
     * Course Schedule
       * [Test Course Schedule](https://github.com/BrianLusina/PythonSnips/blob/master/algorithms/graphs/course_schedule/test_course_schedule.py)
     * Evaluate Division
@@ -108,6 +110,8 @@
       * [Union Find](https://github.com/BrianLusina/PythonSnips/blob/master/algorithms/graphs/number_of_islands/union_find.py)
     * Number Of Provinces
       * [Test Number Of Provinces](https://github.com/BrianLusina/PythonSnips/blob/master/algorithms/graphs/number_of_provinces/test_number_of_provinces.py)
+    * Reconstruct Itinerary
+      * [Test Reconstruct Itinerary](https://github.com/BrianLusina/PythonSnips/blob/master/algorithms/graphs/reconstruct_itinerary/test_reconstruct_itinerary.py)
     * Reorder Routes
       * [Test Reorder Routes](https://github.com/BrianLusina/PythonSnips/blob/master/algorithms/graphs/reorder_routes/test_reorder_routes.py)
     * Rotting Oranges
@@ -321,6 +325,8 @@
     * [Linked List Utils](https://github.com/BrianLusina/PythonSnips/blob/master/datastructures/linked_lists/linked_list_utils.py)
     * Mergeklinkedlists
       * [Test Merge](https://github.com/BrianLusina/PythonSnips/blob/master/datastructures/linked_lists/mergeklinkedlists/test_merge.py)
+    * Reorder List
+      * [Test Reorder List](https://github.com/BrianLusina/PythonSnips/blob/master/datastructures/linked_lists/reorder_list/test_reorder_list.py)
     * Singly Linked List
       * [Node](https://github.com/BrianLusina/PythonSnips/blob/master/datastructures/linked_lists/singly_linked_list/node.py)
       * [Single Linked List](https://github.com/BrianLusina/PythonSnips/blob/master/datastructures/linked_lists/singly_linked_list/single_linked_list.py)
@@ -961,8 +967,6 @@
       * [Test Longest Consecutive Sequence](https://github.com/BrianLusina/PythonSnips/blob/master/tests/datastructures/arrays/test_longest_consecutive_sequence.py)
       * [Test Max Subarray](https://github.com/BrianLusina/PythonSnips/blob/master/tests/datastructures/arrays/test_max_subarray.py)
       * [Test Zig Zag Sequence](https://github.com/BrianLusina/PythonSnips/blob/master/tests/datastructures/arrays/test_zig_zag_sequence.py)
-    * Linked List
-      * [Test Reorder List](https://github.com/BrianLusina/PythonSnips/blob/master/tests/datastructures/linked_list/test_reorder_list.py)
     * [Test Build One 2 3](https://github.com/BrianLusina/PythonSnips/blob/master/tests/datastructures/test_build_one_2_3.py)
     * [Test Consecutive](https://github.com/BrianLusina/PythonSnips/blob/master/tests/datastructures/test_consecutive.py)
     * [Test Data Reverse](https://github.com/BrianLusina/PythonSnips/blob/master/tests/datastructures/test_data_reverse.py)

algorithms/graphs/cat_and_mouse/README.md

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+# Cat and Mouse
+
+A game on an undirected graph is played by two players, Mouse and Cat, who alternate turns.
+
+The graph is given as follows: graph[a] is a list of all nodes b such that ab is an edge of the graph.
+
+The mouse starts at node 1 and goes first, the cat starts at node 2 and goes second, and there is a hole at node 0.
+
+During each player's turn, they must travel along one edge of the graph that meets where they are.  For example, if the 
+Mouse is at node 1, it must travel to any node in graph[1].
+
+Additionally, it is not allowed for the Cat to travel to the Hole (node 0).
+
+Then, the game can end in three ways:
+
+- If ever the Cat occupies the same node as the Mouse, the Cat wins.
+- If ever the Mouse reaches the Hole, the Mouse wins.
+- If ever a position is repeated (i.e., the players are in the same position as a previous turn, and it is the same 
+- player's turn to move), the game is a draw.
+Given a graph, and assuming both players play optimally, return
+
+- 1 if the mouse wins the game,
+- 2 if the cat wins the game, or
+- 0 if the game is a draw.
+
+## Examples
+
+![Example 1](./images/examples/cat_and_mouse_example_1.png)
+
+```text
+Input: graph = [[2,5],[3],[0,4,5],[1,4,5],[2,3],[0,2,3]]
+Output: 0
+```
+
+![Example 2](./images/examples/cat_and_mouse_example_2.png)
+```text
+Input: graph = [[1,3],[0],[3],[0,2]]
+Output: 1
+```
+
+## Constraints
+
+- 3 <= graph.length <= 50
+- 1 <= graph[i].length < graph.length
+- 0 <= graph[i][j] < graph.length
+- graph[i][j] != i
+- graph[i] is unique.
+- The mouse and the cat can always move. 
+
+## Related Topics
+
+- Math
+- Dynamic Programming
+- Graph
+- Topological Sort
+- Memoization
+- Game Theory
+
+## Solution
+
+### Minimax/Percolate from Resolved States
+
+The state of the game can be represented as (m, c, t) where m is the location of the mouse, c is the location of the 
+cat, and t is 1 if it is the mouse's move, else 2. Let's call these states nodes. These states form a directed graph: 
+the player whose turn it is has various moves which can be considered as outgoing edges from this node to other nodes.
+
+Some of these nodes are already resolved: if the mouse is at the hole (m = 0), then the mouse wins; if the cat is where
+the mouse is (c = m), then the cat wins. Let's say that nodes will either be colored MOUSE, CAT, or DRAW depending on
+which player is assured victory.
+
+As in a standard minimax algorithm, the Mouse player will prefer MOUSE nodes first, DRAW nodes second, and CAT nodes
+last, and the Cat player prefers these nodes in the opposite order.
+
+#### Algorithm
+
+We will color each node marked DRAW according to the following rule. (We'll suppose the node has node.turn = Mouse: the
+other case is similar.)
+
+- ("Immediate coloring"): If there is a child that is colored MOUSE, then this node will also be colored MOUSE.
+- ("Eventual coloring"): If all children are colored CAT, then this node will also be colored CAT.
+
+We will repeatedly do this kind of coloring until no node satisfies the above conditions. To perform this coloring 
+efficiently, we will use a queue and perform a bottom-up percolation:
+
+- Enqueue any node initially colored (because the Mouse is at the Hole, or the Cat is at the Mouse.)
+- For every node in the queue, for each parent of that node:
+  - Do an immediate coloring of parent if you can.
+  - If you can't, then decrement the side-count of the number of children marked DRAW. If it becomes zero, then do an 
+    "eventual coloring" of this parent. 
+  - All parents that were colored in this manner get enqueued to the queue.
+
+#### Proof of Correctness
+
+Our proof is similar to a proof that minimax works.
+
+Say we cannot color any nodes any more, and say from any node colored CAT or MOUSE we need at most K moves to win. If
+say, some node marked DRAW is actually a win for Mouse, it must have been with >K moves. Then, a path along optimal play
+(that tries to prolong the loss as long as possible) must arrive at a node colored MOUSE
+(as eventually the Mouse reaches the Hole.) Thus, there must have been some transition DRAW→MOUSE along this path.
+
+If this transition occurred at a node with node.turn = Mouse, then it breaks our immediate coloring rule. If it occured
+with node.turn = Cat, and all children of node have color MOUSE, then it breaks our eventual coloring rule. If some child
+has color CAT, then it breaks our immediate coloring rule. Thus, in this case node will have some child with DRAW, which
+breaks our optimal play assumption, as moving to this child ends the game in >K moves, whereas moving to the colored
+neighbor ends the game in ≤K moves.
+
+#### Complexity Analysis
+
+##### Time Complexity
+
+O(N^3), where N is the number of nodes in the graph. There are O(N^2) states, and each state has an
+outdegree of N, as there are at most N different moves.
+
+##### Space Complexity
+
+O(N^2).

algorithms/graphs/cat_and_mouse/__init__.py

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+from typing import List, Deque, DefaultDict, Tuple
+from collections import deque, defaultdict
+
+
+def cat_mouse_game(graph: List[List[int]]) -> int:
+    n = len(graph)
+
+    # Final game states that determine which player wins
+    draw, mouse, cat = 0, 1, 2
+    color: DefaultDict[Tuple[int, int, int], int] = defaultdict(int)
+
+    # What nodes could play their turn to
+    # arrive at node (m, c, t) ?
+    def parents(m, c, t):
+        if t == 2:
+            for m2 in graph[m]:
+                yield m2, c, 3 - t
+        else:
+            for c2 in graph[c]:
+                if c2:
+                    yield m, c2, 3 - t
+
+    # degree[node] : the number of neutral children of this node
+    degree = {}
+    for m in range(n):
+        for c in range(n):
+            degree[m, c, 1] = len(graph[m])
+            degree[m, c, 2] = len(graph[c]) - (0 in graph[c])
+
+    # enqueued : all nodes that are colored
+    queue: Deque[Tuple[int, int, int, int]] = deque([])
+    for i in range(n):
+        for t in range(1, 3):
+            color[0, i, t] = mouse
+            queue.append((0, i, t, mouse))
+            if i > 0:
+                color[i, i, t] = cat
+                queue.append((i, i, t, cat))
+
+    # percolate
+    while queue:
+        # for nodes that are colored :
+        i, j, t, c = queue.popleft()
+        # for every parent of this node i, j, t :
+        for i2, j2, t2 in parents(i, j, t):
+            # if this parent is not colored :
+            if color[i2, j2, t2] == draw:
+                # if the parent can make a winning move (ie. mouse to MOUSE), do so
+                if t2 == c:  # winning move
+                    color[i2, j2, t2] = c
+                    queue.append((i2, j2, t2, c))
+                # else, this parent has degree[parent]--, and enqueue if all children
+                # of this parent are colored as losing moves
+                else:
+                    degree[i2, j2, t2] -= 1
+                    if degree[i2, j2, t2] == 0:
+                        color[i2, j2, t2] = 3 - t2
+                        queue.append((i2, j2, t2, 3 - t2))
+
+    return color[1, 2, 1]

algorithms/graphs/cat_and_mouse/test_cat_and_mouse.py

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+import unittest
+from typing import List
+from parameterized import parameterized
+from algorithms.graphs.cat_and_mouse import cat_mouse_game
+
+CAT_AND_MOUSE_GAME_TESTS = [
+    ([[2, 5], [3], [0, 4, 5], [1, 4, 5], [2, 3], [0, 2, 3]], 0),
+    ([[1, 3], [0], [3], [0, 2]], 1),
+]
+
+
+class CatAndMouseGameTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
+    @parameterized.expand(CAT_AND_MOUSE_GAME_TESTS)
+    def test_cat_and_mouse_game(self, graph: List[List[int]], expected: int):
+        actual = cat_mouse_game(graph)
+        self.assertEqual(expected, actual)
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    unittest.main()

algorithms/graphs/reconstruct_itinerary/README.md

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+# Reconstruct Itinerary
+
+Given a list of airline tickets where tickets[i] = [fromi, toi] represent a departure airport and an arrival airport of
+a single flight, reconstruct the itinerary in the correct order and return it.
+
+The person who owns these tickets always starts their journey from "JFK". Therefore, the itinerary must begin with "JFK".
+If there are multiple valid itineraries, you should prioritize the one with the smallest lexical order when considering
+a single string.
+
+> Lexicographical order is a way of sorting similar to how words are arranged in a dictionary. It compares items 
+> character by character, based on their order in the alphabet or numerical value.
+
+- For example, the itinerary ["JFK", "EDU"] has a smaller lexical order than ["JFK", "EDX"].
+
+> Note: You may assume all tickets form at least one valid itinerary. You must use all the tickets exactly once.
+
+## Constraints
+
+- 1 <= `tickets.length` <= 300
+- `tickets[i].length` == 2
+- `fromi.length` == 3
+- `toi.length` == 3
+- `fromi` != `toi`
+- `fromi` and `toi` consist of upper case English letters
+
+## Examples
+
+![Example 1](./images/examples/reconstruct_itinerary_example_1.png)
+![Example 2](./images/examples/reconstruct_itinerary_example_2.png)
+![Example 3](./images/examples/reconstruct_itinerary_example_3.png)
+
+## Related Topics
+
+- Depth-First Search
+- Graph
+- Eulerian Circuit
+
+## Solution
+
+The algorithm uses __Hierholzer’s algorithm__ to reconstruct travel itineraries from a list of airline tickets. This 
+problem is like finding an __Eulerian path__ but with a fixed starting point, “JFK”. Hierholzer’s algorithm is great for
+finding Eulerian paths and cycles, which is why we use it here.
+
+> Hierholzer's algorithm is a method for finding an Eulerian circuit (a cycle that visits every edge exactly once) in a 
+> graph. It starts from any vertex and follows edges until it returns to the starting vertex, forming a cycle. If there
+> are any unvisited edges, it starts a new cycle from a vertex on the existing cycle that has unvisited edges and merges
+> the cycles. The process continues until all edges are visited.
+
+> An Eulerian path is a trail in a graph that visits every edge exactly once. An Eulerian path can exist only if exactly
+> zero or two vertices have an odd degree. If there are exactly zero vertices with an odd degree, the path can form a
+> circuit (Eulerian circuit), where the starting and ending points are the same. If there are exactly two vertices with
+> an odd degree, the path starts at one of these vertices and ends at the other.
+
+The algorithm starts by arranging the destinations in reverse lexicographical order to ensure we always choose the
+smallest destination first. It then uses depth-first search (DFS) starting from “JFK” to navigate the flights. As it
+explores each flight path, it builds the itinerary by appending each visited airport when there are no more destinations
+to visit from that airport. Since the airports are added in reverse order during this process, the final step is to
+reverse the list to get the correct itinerary.
+
+The basic algorithm to solve this problem will be:
+
+1. Create a dictionary, `flight_map`, to store the flight information. Each key represents an airport; its corresponding
+   value is a list of destinations from that airport.
+2. Initialize an empty list, result, to store the reconstructed itinerary.
+3. Sort the destinations lexicographically in reverse order to ensure that the smallest destination is chosen first.
+4. Perform DFS traversal starting from the airport "JFK".
+   - Get the list of destinations for the current airport from flight_map.
+   - While there are destinations available:
+     - Pop the next_destination from destinations.
+     - Recursively explore all available flights starting from the popped next_destination, until all possible flights
+       have been considered.
+   - Append the current airport to the result list.
+5. Return the result list in reverse order to ensure the itinerary starts from the initial airport, "JFK", and proceeds
+   through the subsequent airports in the correct order.
+
+Let’s look at the following illustration to get a better understanding of the solution:
+
+![Solution 1](./images/solutions/reconstruct_itinerary_solution_1.png)
+![Solution 2](./images/solutions/reconstruct_itinerary_solution_2.png)
+![Solution 3](./images/solutions/reconstruct_itinerary_solution_3.png)
+![Solution 4](./images/solutions/reconstruct_itinerary_solution_4.png)
+![Solution 5](./images/solutions/reconstruct_itinerary_solution_5.png)
+![Solution 6](./images/solutions/reconstruct_itinerary_solution_6.png)
+![Solution 7](./images/solutions/reconstruct_itinerary_solution_7.png)
+![Solution 8](./images/solutions/reconstruct_itinerary_solution_8.png)
+![Solution 9](./images/solutions/reconstruct_itinerary_solution_9.png)
+![Solution 10](./images/solutions/reconstruct_itinerary_solution_10.png)
+![Solution 11](./images/solutions/reconstruct_itinerary_solution_11.png)
+![Solution 12](./images/solutions/reconstruct_itinerary_solution_12.png)
+![Solution 13](./images/solutions/reconstruct_itinerary_solution_13.png)
+![Solution 14](./images/solutions/reconstruct_itinerary_solution_14.png)
+![Solution 15](./images/solutions/reconstruct_itinerary_solution_15.png)
+
+### Time Complexity
+
+Each edge (flight) is traversed once during the DFS process in the algorithm, resulting in a complexity proportional to
+the number of edges, ∣E∣.
+Before DFS, the outgoing edges for each airport must be sorted. The sorting operation’s complexity depends on the input
+graph’s structure.
+In the worst-case scenario, such as a highly unbalanced graph (e.g., star-shaped), where one airport (e.g., JFK)
+dominates the majority of flights, the sorting operation on this airport becomes highly expensive, possibly reaching N log N
+complexity where `N = |E|/2` In a more balanced or average scenario, where each airport has a roughly equal number of 
+outgoing flights, the sorting operation complexity remains O(N log N) where N represents half of the total number of
+edges divided by twice the number of airports O(|E|/2|V|). Thus, the algorithm’s overall complexity is O(|E|log|E/2|),
+emphasizing the significance of the sorting operation in determining its performance.
+
+### Space Complexity
+
+The space complexity is O(∣V∣+∣E∣), where ∣V∣ is the number of airports and ∣E∣ is the number of flights.